Conservation by Self-Determination in Central America
Danielle Elford
Volume 5, Number 1 (2002) 5 (1): 98-149
Keywords Biocultural Diversity, Conservation, Indigenous Peoples, Self-determination, Alternative Development Paradigm, Global Biodiversity Crisis, Social Ecology Approach
Abstract
This article explores the concept of conservation by self-determination in Central America as a response to the global biocultural diversity crisis. It critiques conventional conservation models and introduces an alternative paradigm grounded in social ecology, which emphasizes the integration of cultural and environmental sustainability. Drawing from case studies of the Kuna in Panama and the Miskito in Nicaragua, the article examines how Indigenous governance and traditional knowledge contribute to effective conservation efforts. It outlines the theoretical foundations of this approach, identifies enabling conditions for implementation, and argues that conservation by self-determination offers both an ecological and political solution to biodiversity loss. The study highlights the importance of Indigenous autonomy and participatory development in shaping conservation strategies that are context-specific, equitable, and resilient.
Danielle Elford
Published January 1, 2002
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Danielle Elford (Author)
Adams, Richard. 1992. Notes on map supplement: Indigenous peoples and the environment in Central America. Research and Exploration 8(4):501-504.
Alcorn, Janis B. 1990. Indigenous agroforestry strategies meeting farmers' needs. In Anthony B. Anderson (ed.), Alternatives to Deforestation: Steps Toward Sustainable Use of the Amazon Rainforest, pp. 141-151. New York: Columbia University Press.
Alcorn, Janis B. 1993. Indigenous peoples and conservation. Conservation Biology 7(2):424-426.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07020424.x
Anaya, S. James and Theodore Macdonald. 1995. Demarcating indigenous territories in Nicaragua: The case of Awas Tingni. Cultural Survival Quarterly 19(3):69-73.
Archibold, Guillermo. 1992. Pemasky in Kuna Yala: Protecting Mother Earth...and her children. In Valerie Barzetti and Yanina Rovinski (eds), Toward a Green Central America: Integrating Conservation and Development, pp. 21-33. West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press, Inc.
Archibold, Guillermo and Sheila Davey. 1993. Kuna Yala: Protecting the San Blas of Panama. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 52-57. London: Earthscan.
Bach, Hanne. 1991. Miskito Indians in Nicaragua: The first ethnic group to obtain autonomy in Central America? IWGIA Newsletter 3:38-43.
Balée, William. 1989. The culture of Amazonian forests. In Darrell A. Posey and William Balée (eds), Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies, pp. 1-21. Bronx, NY: New York Botanical Garden.
Balick, Michael J., Rosita Arvigo, and Leopoldo Romero. 1994. The development of an ethnobiomedical forest reserve in Belize: Its role in the preservation of biological and cultural diversity. Conservation Biology 8(1):316-317. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010316.x
Barzetti, Valerie (ed.). 1993. Parks and Progress: Protected Areas and Economic Development in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC: International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
Batisse, Michel. 1993. Biosphere reserves: An overview. Nature and Resources 29(1-4):3-5.
Berkey, Curtis. 1995. Mayas of Belize and conservation: The need to protect Maya lands in the Toledo District. Cultural Survival Quarterly 19(2):13-16.
Brandon, Katrina. 1991. Integrating conservation and development. National Geographic Research and Exploration 7(3):371-372.
Brechin, Steven R., Patrick C. West, David Harmon, and Kurt Kutay. 1991. Resident peoples and protected areas: A framework for inquiry. In Patrick C. West and Steven R. Brechin (eds), Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation, pp. 5-28. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Breslin, Patrick and Mac Chapin. 1984. Conservation Kuna-style. Grassroots Development 8:26-35.
Budowski, Tamara. 1992. Ecotourism Costa Rican style. In Valerie Barzetti and Yanina Rovinski (eds), Toward a Green Central America: Integrating Conservation and Development, pp. 48-62. West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press, Inc.
Burger, Julian. 1987. Report from the Frontier: The State of the World's Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Carmack, Robert M. 1989. Indians in Buenos Aires, Costa Rica. Cultural Survival Quarterly 13(3):30-33.
Castillo, Geodisio. 1992. Five hundred years of tropical jungle: Indigenous heritage for the benefit of humanity. In Mark Plotkin and Lisa Famolare (eds), Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rainforest Products, pp. 16-19. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Chapin, Mac. 1985. Udirbi: An indigenous project in environmental conservation. In Theodore Macdonald Jr. (ed.), Native Peoples and Economic Development: Six Case Studies from Latin America (Occasional Paper #16), pp. 39-53. Cambridge: Cultural Survival Inc.
Chapin, Mac. 1989. The 500,000 invisible Indians of El Salvador. Cultural Survival Quarterly 13(3):11-16.
Chapin, Mac. 1990. The silent jungle: Ecotourism among the Kuna Indians of Panama. Cultural Survival Quarterly 14(1):42-45.
Chapin, Mac. 1991. How the Kuna keep scientists in line. Cultural Survival Quarterly 15(3):17.
Chapin, Mac. 1992a. Disappearing forests; disappearing peoples. Cultural Survival Quarterly 16(3):63-66.
Chapin, Mac. 1992b. Indigenous peoples and the environment in Central America. Research and Exploration 8(2):232-234.
Chapin, Mac. 1993. Central America: Indians and rain forests. In Marc S. Miller (ed.), State of the Peoples: A Global Human Rights Report on Societies in Danger, pp. 218-230. Boston: Beacon Press.
Chelala, Celina. 1992. We are not conservationists: Interview with Nicanor Gonzalez. Cultural Survival Quarterly 16(3):43-45.
Clad, James. 1984. Conservation and indigenous peoples. Cultural Survival Quarterly 8(4):68-73.
Clarke, William C. 1991. Agro-deforestation in Melanesia. Cultural Survival Quarterly 15(2):45-48.
Clarke, William C. 1995. The ecopolitical meanings of indigenous ecological knowledge. Unpublished manuscript.
Clarke, William C. and R.R. Thaman (eds). 1993. Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands: Systems for Sustainability. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
Clay, Jason W. 1985. Parks and people. Cultural Survival Quarterly 9(1):2-5.
Clay, Jason W. 1988. Indigenous Peoples and Tropical Forests: Models of Land Use and Management from Latin America. Cambridge: Cultural Survival Inc.
Clay, Jason W. 1992. Buying in the forests: A new program to market sustainably collected tropical forest products protects forests and forest residents. In Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch (eds), Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, pp. 400-415. New York: Columbia University Press.
Clay, Jason W. 1993. Marketing and human rights: Lessons from the Cultural Survival marketing program. IWGIA Newsletter 3:4-6.
Colchester, Marcus. 1989. Indian development in Amazonia: Risks and strategies. The Ecologist 19(6):249-254.
Conzemius, Eduard. 1932. Ethnographical Survey of the Miskito and Sumo Indians of Honduras and Nicaragua. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Corry, Stephen. 1993. The rainforest harvest: Who reaps the benefit? The Ecologist 23(4):148-153.
Cox, Paul Alan and Thomas Elmqvist. 1991. Indigenous control of tropical rainforest reserves: An alternative strategy for conservation. Ambio 20(7):317-321.
Cultural Survival Quarterly. 1992a. "We can survive and prosper": Interview with Juanita Segundo Sánchez and Gloria Mayorga Balma. Cultural Survival Quarterly 16(3):37-40.
Cultural Survival Quarterly. 1992b. Projects for the future. Country: Nicaragua, Organization: MIKUPIA - Heart of the Miskito. Cultural Survival Quarterly 16(3):45.
Cultural Survival Quarterly. 1996. Territorio Awas Tingni. Cultural Survival Quarterly 20(1):36.
Ishwaran, N. 1992. Biodiversity, protected areas and sustainable development. Nature and Resources 28(1):18-25.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). 1980. World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1993. Indigenous peoples and the commercialisation of forest products. IWGIA Newsletter 3:7-9.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1994a. Mexico and Central America. The Indigenous World 1993-1994 1:40-50.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1994b. IWGIA and indigenous peoples. The Indigenous World 1993-1994 1:165-181.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1995. Mexico and Central America. The Indigenous World 1994-1995 2:62-73.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1996. Mexico and Central America. The Indigenous World 1995-1996 3:62-76.
Jukofsky, Diane. 1993. Heart of the Miskito. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 205-210. London: Earthscan.
Kemf, Elizabeth. 1993. In search of a home: people living in or near protected areas. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 3-11. London: Earthscan.
Kolankiewicz, Leon. 1989. The Pesch of Honduras face uncertain prospects. Cultural Survival Quarterly 13(3):34-36.
Kutay, Kurt. 1991. Cahuita National Park, Costa Rica: a case study in living cultures and national park management. In Patrick C. West and Steven R. Brechin (eds), Resident Peoples and National Parks: Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation, pp. 114-129. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Leonard, H. Jeffrey. 1987. Natural Resources and Economic Development in Central America. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Lewis, Damien. 1990. Conflict of interests. Geographical Magazine 62(12):18-22.
Lopez-Reyes, Ramon. 1995. The establishment of a United Nations Permanent Forum of Indigenous Peoples and Autonomous Assembly of Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Affairs 2:52-56.
Luthin, Charles and Orlando Calderon. 1995. Regional Environmental Commission established in Honduran Mosquitia. Cultural Survival Quarterly 18(4):38-39.
MacFarland, Craig, Roger Morales and James R. Barborak. 1982. Establishment, planning and implementation of a national wildlands system in Costa Rica. In Jeffrey A. McNeely and Kenton R. Miller (eds), National Parks, Conservation and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society, pp. 592-600. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Martin, Claude. 1993. Introduction. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. xv-xix. London: Earthscan.
Martin, Gary J. 1995. Ethnobotany. London: Chapman and Hall. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2496-0
May, Robert M. 1992. How many species inhabit the earth? Scientific American 267(4):18-24. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1092-42
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1992. Nature and culture: conservation needs them both. Nature and Resources 28(3):37-43.
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1993. People and protected areas: partners in prosperity. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 249-257. London: Earthscan.
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1994a. Lessons from the past: forests and biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 3:3-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00115329
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1994b. Protected areas for the 21st century: working to provide benefits to society. Biodiversity and Conservation 3:390-405. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00057797
McNeely, Jeffrey A., Kenton R. Miller, Walter V. Reid, Russell A. Mittermeier and Timothy B. Werner. 1990. Conserving the World's Biological Diversity. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, World Resources Institute, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund-US and the World Bank.
Mohawk, John C. 1982. The possibilities of uniting Indians and the left for social change in Nicaragua. Cultural Survival Quarterly 6(1):24-25.
Moore, Alexander. 1984. From council to legislature: democracy, parliamentarianism, and the San Blas Cuna. American Anthropologist 86(1):28-42. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00030
Moran, Katy. 1994. Biocultural diversity conservation through The Healing Forest Conservancy. In Tom Greaves (ed.), Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Sourcebook, pp. 99-109. Oklahoma City: Society for Applied Anthropology.
Myers, Norman. 1981. The hamburger connection: how Central America's forests become North America's hamburgers. Ambio 10(1):3-8.
Nash, Roderick. 1970. The American invention of national parks. American Quarterly 22(3):726-735. https://doi.org/10.2307/2711623
Nations, James D. 1992. Xateros, chicleros, and pimenteros: harvesting renewable tropical forest resources in the Guatemalan Petén. In Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch (eds), Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, pp. 208-219. New York: Columbia University Press.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1982. Indians, immigrants and beef exports: deforestation in Central America. Cultural Survival Quarterly 6(1):8-12.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1983a. Central America's tropical rainforests: positive steps for survival. Ambio 12(5):232-238.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1983b. International action halts road through Honduras rainforest. Ambio 12(2):124-125.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1987. Rainforests and the hamburger society. The Ecologist 17(4-5):161-167.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1973. Between Land and Water: The Subsistence Ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. New York: Seminar Press.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1984. The unreported war against the Sandinistas: 6,000 Indian guerillas are fighting for their land. Policy Review 29:32-39.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1987. The third world war. Cultural Survival Quarterly 11(3):1-16.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1988. Miskito and Kuna struggle for nation autonomy. In John H. Bodley (ed.), Tribal Peoples and Development Issues: A Global Overview, pp. 271-280. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1989. The Unknown War: The Miskito Nation, Nicaragua, and the United States. New York: Freedom House.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1990. Conservation by conflict in Nicaragua. Natural History (November):42-49.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1991a. Nietschmann rejoins: conservation by self-determination. Research and Exploration 7(3):373.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1991b. Miskito Coast Protected Area: field notes. Research and Exploration 7(2):232-234.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1992. The Interdependence of Biological and Cultural Diversity (Occasional Paper No. 21). Olympia: Center for World Indigenous Studies.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1993a. Nicaragua's new environmental alliance for Indian-Latin America. Research and Exploration 9(3):270-271.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1993b. The development of autonomy in the Miskito nation. Fourth World Bulletin 2(2):1,6-7,15.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1994. The Fourth World: nations versus states. In George J. Demko and William B. Wood (eds), Reordering the World: Geopolitical Perspectives on the Twenty-First Century, pp. 225-242. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1995. Defending the Miskito Reefs with maps and GPS: mapping with sail, scuba and satellite. Cultural Survival Quarterly 18(4):34-37.
Dasmann, Raymond. 1988. National parks, nature conservation, and the "future primitive". In John H. Bodley (ed.), Tribal Peoples and Development Issues: A Global Overview, pp. 301-310. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Dasmann, Raymond. 1991. The importance of cultural and biological diversity. In Margery L. Oldfield and Janis B. Alcorn (eds), Biodiversity: Culture, Conservation, and Ecodevelopment, pp. 7-15. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Davis, Shelton H. and Alaka Wali. 1994. Indigenous territories and tropical forest management in Latin America. Indigenous Affairs 4:4-13.
Day, Peter. 1988. Miskito power: back on the British main. Quadrant 32(1-2):27-37.
Deihl, Colin. 1985. Wildlife and the Maasai. Cultural Survival Quarterly 9(1):37-40.
DeLaCruz, Joseph B. 1989. From self-determination to self-government. In Carol J. Minugh, Glenn T. Morris and Rudolph C. Ryser (eds), Indian Self-Governance: Perspectives on the Political Status of Indian Nations in the United States of America, pp. 1-14. Olympia, USA: Center for World Indigenous Studies.
DeWalt, Billie R. 1994. Using indigenous knowledge to improve agriculture and natural resource management. Human Organization 53(2):123-131. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.53.2.ku60563817m03n73
Dufour, Darna L. 1990. Use of tropical rainforests by native Amazonians. Bioscience 40(9):652-659. https://doi.org/10.2307/1311432
Dwyer, Peter D. 1994. Modern conservation and indigenous peoples: In search of wisdom. Pacific Conservation Biology 1:91-97.
https://doi.org/10.1071/PC940091
Eilers, Horst. 1985. Protected areas and indigenous peoples. Cultural Survival Quarterly 9(1):6-9.
The Fourth World Documentation Project. 1993. Discrimination against indigenous peoples: Report of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations on its eleventh session. Document: DRFT9329.TXT. United Nations Economic and Social Council.
Gadgil, Madhav, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke. 1993. Indigenous knowledge for biodiversity conservation. Ambio 22(2-3):151-156.
Glick, Dennis and Jorge Betancourt. 1983. The Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve: Unique resource, unique alternative. Ambio 12(3-4):168-173.
Gomez-Pompa, Arturo and Andrea Kaus. 1992. Taming the wilderness myth. Bioscience 42(4):271-279. https://doi.org/10.2307/1311675
Gonzalez, Nicanor, Francisco Herrera, and Mac Chapin. 1995. Ethnocartography in the Darién. Cultural Survival Quarterly 18(4):31-33.
Goodland, Robert. 1988. Tribal peoples and economic development: The human ecological dimension. In John H. Bodley (ed.), Tribal Peoples and Development Issues: A Global Overview, pp. 391-405. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Gradwohl, Judith and Russell Greenberg. 1988. Saving the Tropical Forests. Washington D.C.: Island Press.
Gray, Andrew. 1990. Indigenous peoples and the marketing of the rainforest. The Ecologist 20(6):223-227.
Gray, Andrew. 1991. Between the Spice of Life and the Melting Pot: Biodiversity Conservation and Its Impact on Indigenous Peoples (IWGIA Document No. 70). Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.
Green, G. 1990. Conservation through the looking glass: The case of Central America. In M. Palo and G. Mery (eds), Deforestation or Development in the Third World?, pp. 121-129. Helsinki: The Finnish Forest Research Institute.
Gregg Jr, William P. 1991. MAB Biosphere reserves and conservation of traditional land use systems. In Margery L. Oldfield and Janis B. Alcorn (eds), Biodiversity: Culture, Conservation, and Ecodevelopment, pp. 274-294. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Grosvenor, Gilbert M., Anthony R. de Souza, and Mac Chapin. 1992. The coexistence of indigenous peoples and the natural environment in Central America. Research and Exploration 8(2): Map Supplement.
Gupta, Mahabir P., Ana Jones, Pablo Solis, and Mireya D. Correa. 1992. Ethnopharmacognostic study of Kuna Yala. In Mark Plotkin and Lisa Famolare (eds), Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rainforest Products, pp. 201-211. Washington D.C.: Island Press.
Hales, David. 1989. Changing concepts of natural parks. In David Western and Mary Pearl (eds), Conservation for the Twenty-first Century, pp. 139-144. New York: Oxford University Press.
Halle, Mark. 1992. Forward. In Valerie Barzetti and Yanina Rovinski (eds), Toward a Green Central America: Integrating Conservation and Development, pp. ix-x. West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press, Inc.
Hannum, Hurst. 1990. Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination: The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Harmon, David. 1987. Cultural diversity, human subsistence, and the national park ideal. Environmental Ethics 9(2):147-158. https://doi.org/10.5840/enviroethics19879233
Harp, William. 1994. Ecology and cosmology: Rainforest exploitation among the Embera-Choco. Nature and Resources 30(1):23-27.
Heckadon, Stanley. 1992. Central America: Tropical land of mountains and volcanoes. In Valerie Barzetti and Yanina Rovinski (eds), Toward a Green Central America: Integrating Conservation and Development, pp. 5-19. West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press, Inc.
Helms, Mary W. 1971. Asang: Adaptations to Culture Contact in a Miskito Community. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
Herlihy, Peter H. 1985. Choco Indian relocation in Darién, Panama. Cultural Survival Quarterly 9(2):43-45.
Herlihy, Peter H. 1989. Panama's quiet revolution: Comarca homelands and Indian rights. Cultural Survival Quarterly 13(3):17-24.
Herlihy, Peter H. 1993. Securing a homeland: The Tawahka Sumu of Mosquitia's rainforest. In Marc S. Miller (ed.), State of the Peoples: A Global Human Rights Report on Societies in Danger, pp. 54-59. Boston: Beacon Press.
Hough, John L. 1988. Obstacles to effective management of conflicts between national parks and surrounding human communities in developing countries. Environmental Conservation 15(2):129-136. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900028939
Houseal, Brian, Craig MacFarland, Guillermo Archibold, and Aurelio Chiari. 1985. Indigenous cultures and protected areas in Central America. Cultural Survival Quarterly 9(1):10-19.
Howe, James. 1986. The Kuna Gathering: Contemporary Village Politics in Panama. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Hyndman, David. 1994. Conservation through self-determination: Promoting the interdependence of cultural and biological diversity. Human Organization 53(3):296-302. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.53.3.94272v6297ku547v
Hyndman, David, Levita Duhaylungsod, and Benjamin Thomas. 1994. To the last grain of rice: T'boli subsistence production. Dialectical Anthropology 19:45-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01300691
Ishwaran, N. 1992. Biodiversity, protected areas and sustainable development. Nature and Resources 28(1):18-25.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). 1980. World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1993. Indigenous peoples and the commercialisation of forest products. IWGIA Newsletter 3:7-9.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1994a. Mexico and Central America. The Indigenous World 1993-1994 1:40-50.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1994b. IWGIA and indigenous peoples. The Indigenous World 1993-1994 1:165-181.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1995. Mexico and Central America. The Indigenous World 1994-1995 2:62-73.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 1996. Mexico and Central America. The Indigenous World 1995-1996 3:62-76.
Jukofsky, Diane. 1993. Heart of the Miskito. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 205-210. London: Earthscan.
Kemf, Elizabeth. 1993. In search of a home: people living in or near protected areas. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 3-11. London: Earthscan.
Kolankiewicz, Leon. 1989. The Pesch of Honduras face uncertain prospects. Cultural Survival Quarterly 13(3):34-36.
Kutay, Kurt. 1991. Cahuita National Park, Costa Rica: a case study in living cultures and national park management. In Patrick C. West and Steven R. Brechin (eds), Resident Peoples and National Parks: Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation, pp. 114-129. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Leonard, H. Jeffrey. 1987. Natural Resources and Economic Development in Central America. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Lewis, Damien. 1990. Conflict of interests. Geographical Magazine 62(12):18-22.
Lopez-Reyes, Ramon. 1995. The establishment of a United Nations Permanent Forum of Indigenous Peoples and Autonomous Assembly of Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Affairs 2:52-56.
Luthin, Charles and Orlando Calderon. 1995. Regional Environmental Commission established in Honduran Mosquitia. Cultural Survival Quarterly 18(4):38-39.
MacFarland, Craig, Roger Morales and James R. Barborak. 1982. Establishment, planning and implementation of a national wildlands system in Costa Rica. In Jeffrey A. McNeely and Kenton R. Miller (eds), National Parks, Conservation and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society, pp. 592-600. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Martin, Claude. 1993. Introduction. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. xv-xix. London: Earthscan.
Martin, Gary J. 1995. Ethnobotany. London: Chapman and Hall.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2496-0
May, Robert M. 1992. How many species inhabit the earth? Scientific American 267(4):18-24.
https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1092-42
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1992. Nature and culture: conservation needs them both. Nature and Resources 28(3):37-43.
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1993. People and protected areas: partners in prosperity. In Elizabeth Kemf (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth, pp. 249-257. London: Earthscan.
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1994a. Lessons from the past: forests and biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 3:3-20.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00115329
McNeely, Jeffrey A. 1994b. Protected areas for the 21st century: working to provide benefits to society. Biodiversity and Conservation 3:390-405.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00057797
McNeely, Jeffrey A., Kenton R. Miller, Walter V. Reid, Russell A. Mittermeier and Timothy B. Werner. 1990. Conserving the World's Biological Diversity. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, World Resources Institute, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund-US and the World Bank.
Mohawk, John C. 1982. The possibilities of uniting Indians and the left for social change in Nicaragua. Cultural Survival Quarterly 6(1):24-25.
Moore, Alexander. 1984. From council to legislature: democracy, parliamentarianism, and the San Blas Cuna. American Anthropologist 86(1):28-42.
https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00030
Moran, Katy. 1994. Biocultural diversity conservation through The Healing Forest Conservancy. In Tom Greaves (ed.), Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Sourcebook, pp. 99-109. Oklahoma City: Society for Applied Anthropology.
Myers, Norman. 1981. The hamburger connection: how Central America's forests become North America's hamburgers. Ambio 10(1):3-8.
Nash, Roderick. 1970. The American invention of national parks. American Quarterly 22(3):726-735.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2711623
Nations, James D. 1992. Xateros, chicleros, and pimenteros: harvesting renewable tropical forest resources in the Guatemalan Petén. In Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch (eds), Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, pp. 208-219. New York: Columbia University Press.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1982. Indians, immigrants and beef exports: deforestation in Central America. Cultural Survival Quarterly 6(1):8-12.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1983a. Central America's tropical rainforests: positive steps for survival. Ambio 12(5):232-238.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1983b. International action halts road through Honduras rainforest. Ambio 12(2):124-125.
Nations, James D. and Daniel I. Komer. 1987. Rainforests and the hamburger society. The Ecologist 17(4-5):161-167.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1973. Between Land and Water: The Subsistence Ecology of the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. New York: Seminar Press.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1984. The unreported war against the Sandinistas: 6,000 Indian guerillas are fighting for their land. Policy Review 29:32-39.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1987. The third world war. Cultural Survival Quarterly 11(3):1-16.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1988. Miskito and Kuna struggle for nation autonomy. In John H. Bodley (ed.), Tribal Peoples and Development Issues: A Global Overview, pp. 271-280. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1989. The Unknown War: The Miskito Nation, Nicaragua, and the United States. New York: Freedom House.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1990. Conservation by conflict in Nicaragua. Natural History (November):42-49.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1991a. Nietschmann rejoins: conservation by self-determination. Research and Exploration 7(3):373.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1991b. Miskito Coast Protected Area: field notes. Research and Exploration 7(2):232-234.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1992. The Interdependence of Biological and Cultural Diversity (Occasional Paper No. 21). Olympia: Center for World Indigenous Studies.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1993a. Nicaragua's new environmental alliance for Indian-Latin America. Research and Exploration 9(3):270-271.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1993b. The development of autonomy in the Miskito nation. Fourth World Bulletin 2(2):1,6-7,15.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1994. The Fourth World: nations versus states. In George J. Demko and William B. Wood (eds), Reordering the World: Geopolitical Perspectives on the Twenty-First Century, pp. 225-242. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Nietschmann, Bernard Q. 1995. Defending the Miskito Reefs with maps and GPS: mapping with sail, scuba and satellite. Cultural Survival Quarterly 18(4):34-37.
Oldfield, Margery L. and Janis B. Alcorn. 1991a. Traditional conservation and use of biodiversity: introduction. In Margery L. Oldfield and Janis B. Alcorn (eds), Biodiversity: Culture, Conservation, and Ecodevelopment, pp. 119–126. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Oldfield, Margery L. and Janis B. Alcorn. 1991b. Conservation of traditional agroecosystems. In Margery L. Oldfield and Janis B. Alcorn (eds), Biodiversity: Culture, Conservation, and Ecodevelopment, pp. 37–58. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Olson, Eric. 1989. Biosphere reserves of Central America: a critique. In William P. Gregg, Stanley L. Krugman and James D. Wood (eds), Proceedings of the Symposium on Biosphere Reserves: Fourth World Wilderness, September 14–17 1987, Estes Park, Colorado, USA, pp. 242–253. Atlanta, Georgia: US Department of the Interior National Park Service.
Ortiz, Roxanne Dunbar. 1987. Indigenous rights and regional autonomy in revolutionary Nicaragua. Latin American Perspectives 14(1):43–66.
Ortiz, Roxanne Dunbar. 1988. The Miskito Indians of Nicaragua, The Minority Rights Group Report No. 79. London: Minority Rights Group. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X8701400103
Park, Chris C. 1992. Tropical Rainforests. London: Routledge.
Pearce, Fred. 1990. Brazil, where the ice cream comes from. New Scientist 7:45–48.
Pendelton, Linwood H. 1992. Trouble in paradise: practical obstacles to nontimber forestry in Latin America. In Mark Plotkin and Lisa Famolare (eds), Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rain Forest Products, pp. 252–262. Washington DC: Island Press.
Peres, Carlos A. 1994. Indigenous reserves and nature conservation in Amazonian forests. Conservation Biology 8(2):586–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941929009380702
Poole, Peter. 1989. Developing a partnership of indigenous peoples, conservationists and land use. Washington DC: World Bank.
Posey, Darrell A. 1989. Alternatives to forest destruction: lessons from the Mêbêngôkre Indians. The Ecologist 19(6):241–244.
Posey, Darrell A. 1990. Intellectual property rights. Journal of Ethnobiology 10:93–98.
Posey, Darrell A. 1992. Interpreting and applying the “reality” of indigenous concepts: what is necessary to learn from the natives? In Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch (eds), Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, pp. 21–34. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rahman, Anisur. 1993. People’s Self-Development: Perspectives on Participatory Action Research. London: Zed Books.
Rao, Kishore and Charles Geisler. 1990. The social consequences of protected areas development for resident populations. Society and Natural Resources 3(1):19–32.
Redford, Kent H. 1991. The ecologically noble savage. Cultural Survival Quarterly 15(1):46–48.
Redford, Kent H., Bert Klein and Carolina Murcia. 1992. Incorporation of game animals into small-scale agroforestry systems in the neotropics. In Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch (eds), Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, pp. 333–353. New York: Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.15231739.1993.07020248.x
Redford, Kent H. and Allyn Maclean Stearman. 1993a. Forest dwelling native Amazonians and the conservation of biodiversity: interests in common or in collision? Conservation Biology 7(2):248–255. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07020427.x
Redford, Kent H. and Allyn Maclean Stearman. 1993b. On common ground?: response to Alcorn. Conservation Biology 7(2):427–428.
Reining, Conrad and Robert Heinzman. 1992. Nontimber forest products in the Petén, Guatemala: why extractive reserves are critical for both conservation and development. In Mark Plotkin and Lisa Famolare (eds), Sustainable Harvest and Marketing of Rain Forest Products, pp. 110–117. Washington DC: Island Press.
Salati, Eneas and Peter B. Vose. 1983. Deforestation of tropical rain forests. Ambio 12(2):67–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0251-1088(83)92396-3
Santiso, Claudia. 1993. The Maya Biosphere Reserve: an alternative for the sustainable use of resources. Nature and Resources 29(1–4):6–11.
Schmink, Marianne, Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch. 1992. Traditional peoples and the biosphere: framing the issues and defining the terms. In Kent H. Redford and Christine Padoch (eds), Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, pp. 3–13. New York: Columbia University Press.
Semple, Alison. 1995. Growth of a green network. Geographical 67(2):11.
Sherzer, Joel. 1990. Verbal Art in San Blas: Kuna Culture Through Its Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1994.96.4.02a00100
Sherzer, Joel. 1994. The Kuna and Columbus: encounters and confrontations of discourse. American Anthropologist 96(4):902–924.
Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith. 1992. Modern Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Smith, Guy-Harold. 1971. Conservation of Natural Resources. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sollis, Peter. 1989. The Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua: development and autonomy. Journal of Latin American Studies 21:481–520. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X00018526
Steinberg, Michael. 1993. Protecting wildlands through culturally compatible conservation. Environmental Conservation 20(3):260–262. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892900023055
Stiles, Daniel. 1994. Tribals and trade: a strategy for cultural and ecological survival. Ambio 23(2):106–111.
Stocks, Anthony. 1992. Land war: land barons responded with murder after Indians in Honduras organized to recover their land. Cultural Survival Quarterly 16(1):16–18.
Stout, D. B. 1947. San Blas Cuna Acculturation: An Introduction. New York: Viking.
Swain, Margaret Byrne. 1977. Cuna women and ethnic tourism: a way to persist and an avenue to change. In Valene L. Smith (ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, pp. 71–81. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812208016.83
Swain, Margaret Byrne. 1989. Gender roles in indigenous tourism: Kuna mola, Kuna Yala, and cultural survival. In Valene L. Smith (ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., pp. 83–104. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Torres, Hernan, Donald P. Masterson and Luis Hurtado de Mendoza. 1989. La Amistad Biosphere Reserve: an exercise in environmental planning. In William P. Gregg, Stanley L. Krugman and James D. Wood (eds), Proceedings of the Symposium on Biosphere Reserves: Fourth World Wilderness, September 14–17 1987, Estes Park, Colorado, USA, pp. 254–263. Atlanta, Georgia: US Department of the Interior National Park Service.
Trainer, Ted. 1995. What is development? Society and Nature 3(1):26–56.
United States Man and the Biosphere Program (USMAB). 1989. Biosphere reserves: what, where and why? Focus 39(1):17–19.
Utting, Peter. 1993. Trees, People and Power: Social Dimensions of Deforestation and Forest Protection in Central America. London: Earthscan. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.1994.tb00515.x
Utting, Peter. 1994. Social and political dimensions of environmental protection in Central America. Development and Change 25:231–259.
Vilas, Carlos M. 1989. State, Class and Ethnicity in Nicaragua: Capitalist Modernization and Revolutionary Change on the Atlantic Coast. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781685851460
Wells, Michael P. and Katrina E. Brandon. 1993. The principles and practice of buffer zones and local participation in biodiversity conservation. AMBIO 22(2–3):157–162.
West, Patrick C. and Steven R. Brechin. 1991. National parks, protected areas, and resident peoples: a comparative assessment and integration. In Patrick C. West and Steven R. Brechin (eds), Resident Peoples and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation, pp. 363–400. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Wiggins, Armstrong. 1993. Indian rights and the environment. The Yale Journal of International Law 18(1):345–354.
Wilcox, Bruce A. 1984. In-situ conservation of genetic resources: determinants of minimum area requirements. In Jeffrey A. McNeely and
Kenton R. Miller (eds), National Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society, pp. 639–647. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Wilcox, Bruce A. and Kristin N. Duin. 1995. Indigenous cultural and biological diversity: overlapping values of Latin American ecoregions. Cultural Survival Quarterly 18(4):49–53.
Wilk, Richard and Mac Chapin. 1989. Belize: land tenure and ethnicity. Cultural Survival Quarterly 13(3):41–45.
Wolf, Eric Robert. 1982. Europe and the People Without History. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Woodward Jr., Ralph Lee. 1992. Central America: part II. Collier’s Encyclopedia 5:643–648.
World Resources Institute (WRI), The World Conservation Union (IUCN), and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy. Washington DC: WRI, IUCN, and UNEP.
Wright, Robin M. 1988. Anthropological presuppositions of indigenous advocacy. Annual Review of Anthropology 17:365–390. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.002053
Wright, R. Michael, Brian Houseal and Cebaldo de Leon. 1988. Kuna Yala: indigenous biosphere reserve in the making? In John H. Bodley (ed.), Tribal Peoples and Development Issues: A Global Overview, pp. 352–356. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
Submissions
