Melissa Farley, Ph.D., Jacqueline Lynne
Volume 6, Number 1 (2005) 6 (1): 1-29
Keywords Colonization; Indigenous Peoples; Prostitution, First Nations Women; Socio-economic Disparities, Intersectionality of Race Gender Class; Exploitation of Indigenous Women, Colonization, Indigenous Peoples, Prostitution, First Nations Women, Socio-economic Disparities, Intersectionality of Race Gender Class, Exploitation of Indigenous Women
Abstract
This article examines the impact of colonization on First Nations women in Canada, focusing on the systemic factors contributing to their vulnerability to prostitution. It explores how historical and ongoing colonial policies have created socio-economic conditions—such as poverty, marginalization, and violence—that disproportionately affect Indigenous women. The article highlights the intersectionality of race, gender, and class in shaping the lived experiences of these women, emphasizing how these overlapping systems of oppression contribute to their exploitation. By connecting prostitution with broader colonial structures, the article calls for urgent social and policy reforms to address these injustices and support the rights, dignity, and safety of Indigenous women in Canada.
Melissa Farley, Ph.D.
Jacqueline Lynne
Published September 1, 2005
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Melissa Farley, Ph.D., Jacqueline Lynne (Author)
Assistant Deputy Ministers' Committee on Prostitution and Sexual Exploitation of Youth. (2001). Sexual Exploitation of Youth in British Columbia. Victoria: Ministry of Attorney General, Ministry for Children and Families, and Ministry of Health.
Barry, K. (1995). The Prostitution of Sexuality. New York: New York University Press.
Bourgeault, R. (1989). Race, Class, and Gender: Colonial Domination of Indian Women. Socialist Studies, 5, 87-105.
Boyer, D., Chapman, L., & Marshall, B.K. (1993). Survival Sex in King County: Helping Women Out. Report Submitted to King County Women's Advisory Board. Seattle: Northwest Resource Associates.
Canada. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada.
Cler-Cunningham, L. & Christenson, C. (2001). Studying Violence to stop it: Canadian research on violence against women in Vancouver's street level sex trade. Research for Sex Work, 4, June: 25-26.
Cohen, B. (1994). Health Services Development in an Aboriginal Community: the Case of Peguis First Nation. Research study prepared for RCAP. Cited in Canada. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada.
Cohen, R. & Sanchez-Garzoli, G. (2001). Internal Displacement in the Americas: Some Distinctive Features. Brookings-CUNY Project on Internally Displaced Persons. Retrieved July 17, 2001, from http://www.brook.edu/dybdocroot/fp/projects/idp/articles/idamericas.htm
Cunningham, L.C. & Christensen, C. (2001). Violence against Women in Vancouver's Street Level Sex Trade and the Police Response. Vancouver: PACE Society.
Currie, S. (1994). Assessing the Violence Against Street Involved Women in the Downtown Eastside/Strathcona Community: A Needs Assessment. Cited in Federal/Provincial Territorial Working Group on Prostitution (1998). Report and Recommendations in respect of Legislation, Policy and Practices Concerning Prostitution-Related Activities. Federal/Provincial Working Group on Prostitution.
Dworkin, A. (2000). Palestinians/Prostituted Women. In A. Dworkin (Ed.), Scapegoat, pp. 275-233. New York: Free Press.
Dworkin, A. (1997). Prostitution and Male Supremacy. In A. Dworkin (Ed.), Life and Death, pp. 139-151. New York: Free Press.
Ekberg, G.S. (2001, March). Prostitution and Trafficking: the Legal Situation in Sweden. Paper presented at Journées de Formation sur la Mondialisation de la Prostitution et du Trafic Sexuel, Association Québécoise des Organismes de Coopération Internationale, Montréal, Québec, Canada.
Ekberg, G. (2004). The Swedish Law That Prohibits the Purchase of Sexual Services. Violence Against Women, 10, 1177-1077.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204268647
Elizabeth Fry Society of Toronto (1987). Streetwork Outreach with Adult Female Prostitutes: Final Report 5. Toronto: Elizabeth Fry Society.
Epstein, J.N., Saunders, B.E., Kilpatrick, D.G., & Resnick, H.S. (1998). PTSD as a mediator between childhood rape and alcohol use in adult women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 223‐234.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00133-6
Farley, M. (2004). Bad for the Body, Bad for the Heart: Prostitution Harms Women Even If Legalized or Decriminalized. Violence Against Women, 10, 1087-1125.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204268607
Farley, M. (2003a, May). Preliminary Report on Prostitution in New Zealand. Unpublished paper presented to New Zealand Parliament. Available from mfarley@prostitutionresearch.com. Wellington, New Zealand.
Farley, M. (2003b). Prostitution and the Invisibility of Harm. Women & Therapy, 26, 247-280.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J015v26n03_06
Farley, M., Cotton, A., Lynne, J., Zumbeck, S., Spiwak, F., Reyes, M.E., Alvarez, D., Sezgin, U. (2003). Prostitution & Trafficking in Nine Countries: An Update on Violence and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In M. Farley (Ed.), Prostitution, Trafficking, and Traumatic Stress (pp. 33-74). Binghamton, NY: Haworth.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J189v02n03_03
Federal/Provincial Territorial Working Group on Prostitution (1998). Report and Recommendations in Respect of Legislation, Policy and Practices Concerning Prostitution-Related Activities. Canadian Federal/Provincial Working Group on Prostitution.
Fiske, J. (2002). Political Status of Native Indian Women: Contradictory Implications of Canadian State Policy. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 19. Retrieved June 12, 2002, from http://www.lawlib.utoronto.ca/Diana/fulltext/fisk.htm
Freire, P. (1994). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Frideres, J. (1983). Native people in Canada: Contemporary conflicts. Cited in M. Kelm (1998). Colonizing bodies: Aboriginal health and healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950 (pp. 295-296). Vancouver: UBC Press.
Giobbe, E. (1993). An Analysis of Individual, Institutional and Cultural Pimping. Michigan Journal of Gender & Law, 1, 33-57.
Haig-Brown, C. (1993). Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press.
Hall, G. (2005). Green Light for Germany's Red Lights. Retrieved January 28, 2005, from http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2005/01/30/1107020259075.html?oneclick=true#
Harden, B. (2001, August). A Black Mud From Africa Helps Power the New Economy. New York Times Magazine.
Heath, K.V., Cornelisse, P.G.A., Strathdee, S.A., Palepu, A., Miller, M., Schechter, M.T., O'Shaughnessy, M.V. & Hogg, R.S. (1999). HIV-associated risk factors among young Canadian Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal men who have sex with men. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 10, 582-587.
https://doi.org/10.1258/0956462991914708
Hernandez, T. K. (2001). Sexual Harassment and Racial Disparity: The Mutual Construction of Gender and Race. University of Iowa Journal of Gender, Race & Justice, 4, 183-224.
Hotaling, N., Burris, A., Johnson, B.J., Bird, Y.M., & Melbye, K.A. (2003). Been There Done That: SAGE A Peer Leadership Model Among Prostitution Survivors. In M. Farley (Ed.), Prostitution, Trafficking and Traumatic Stress (pp. 255-266). Binghamton, NY: Haworth.
https://doi.org/10.1300/J189v02n03_15
INCITE! (2001). Colonialism and Gender Violence in the Lives of American Indian Women. Minneapolis MN: Women of Color Against Violence. Retrieved December 14, 2001, from http://www.incite-national.org/involve/colonialism.html
Jim, R. (1997, August). Remarks at World Congress on Violence and Human Coexistence. University College, Dublin, Ireland.
Kelm, M. (1998). Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Kempadoo, K. (1998). Globalizing Sex Workers’ Rights. London: Routledge.
Leclerc, B. (2003). Aboriginal Women’s Perspectives on Sexual Exploitation: The Role of Aboriginal Women’s Organizations in Responding to the Sexual Exploitation of Aboriginal Women and Girls. Ottawa: Canadian Women’s Foundation.
Leigh, C. (1997). The Effects of Legalizing Prostitution. Journal of Law and Economics, 40, 588-619.
MacKinnon, C.A. (1993). Only Words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
MacLeod, D. & Skinner, H. (1999). Violence Against Women in the Downtown Eastside of Vancouver: Preliminary Results from the Women’s Health Surveillance Project. Cited in M. Kelm (1998). Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-1950 (pp. 287-288). Vancouver: UBC Press.
MacLeod, M. & Skinner, H. (2001). Violence Against Women in the Downtown Eastside of Vancouver: Preliminary Results from the Women’s Health Surveillance Project. Vancouver: Women’s Health Surveillance Project.
McCall, S. (1999). Sex Workers and Health Promotion in Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 90(5), 352-355.
McPhail, B. (1991). Native Women and Violence: A Critical Analysis of the Literature. Ottawa: Ministry of the Solicitor General of Canada.
Miller, B. (2004). The Problem of Prostitution: Women’s Strategies for Resistance. Sociological Forum, 19, 41-62.
Montgomery, A. (2002). The Role of Law Enforcement in Responding to Violence Against Women. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 44, 15-35.
Murray, G. (2003). Trafficking in Women in Canada: A Comparative Perspective. Ottawa: Library of Parliament.
Najam, A. (2000). The Four-C’s of Government–Civil Society Relations. Third World Quarterly, 21(2), 205-218.
National Task Force on Sexually Exploited Children and Youth. (2006). No More Stolen Sisters: The National Report on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. Ottawa: Native Women’s Association of Canada.
Newton, P. (2000). The Rescue Industry: Critical Essays on the Global Traffic in Women. London: Zed Books.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (1999). Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking. United Nations.
Pheterson, G. (1993). The Whore Stigma: Female Dishonor and Male Unworthiness. Social Text, 37, 39-64. https://doi.org/10.2307/466259
Raymond, J.G. (2003). Prostitution on Demand: Legalizing the Buyers as Sexual Consumers. In M. Farley (Ed.), Prostitution, Trafficking and Traumatic Stress (pp. 91-102). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.
Razack, S. (1998). Looking White People in the Eye: Gender, Race, and Culture in Courtrooms and Classrooms. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442670204
Reid, J. (2007). Sex trafficking in South Asia: Challenges and responses. Regional Development Dialogue, 28(1), 151-167.
Russell, D.E.H. (1998). Making Violence Sexy: Feminist Views on Pornography. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Sangster, J. (2001). Telling Our Stories: Feminist Debates and the Use of Oral History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Schuller, R. (2000). Health and Social Care Provision for Sex Workers: A Practical Guide. Journal of Community Nursing, 14(3), 16-21.
Simpson, L. (2001). Aboriginal People and Community Healing. Ottawa: Aboriginal Healing Foundation.
Smith, D.E. (1999). The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Spivak, G.C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (pp. 271-313). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Stark, E. (1996). Battering: The Crisis in Family Violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Tolman, D.L. (1994). The Creation of Desire: Challenging the Sexualization of Women in Popular Culture. Journal of Sex Research, 31, 230-235.
Tyler, I. (2008). ‘Chav Mum Chav Scum’: Class Disgust in Contemporary Britain. Feminist Media Studies, 8(1), 17-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680770701824779
Vanwesenbeeck, I. (2001). Another Decade of Social Scientific Work on Sex Work: A Review of Research 1990-2000. Annual Review of Sex Research, 12, 242-289. https://doi.org/10.1080/10532528.2001.10559799
Walkowitz, J.R. (1980). Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weitzer, R. (2000). Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge.
Wilson, D. (1998). A History of Aboriginal Women and Domestic Violence in Canada. Canadian Woman Studies, 18(1), 45-48.
Wong, J. (2005). The Impact of Law Enforcement on Street Prostitutes: Lessons from Vancouver. Journal of Law and Society, 32, 553-574.
Young, I.M. (1990). Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Zatz, N.D. (1997). Sex Work/Sex Act: Law, Labor, and Desire in Constructions of Prostitution. Signs, 22(2), 277-308.
https://doi.org/10.1086/495157
Zimmerman, C., et al. (2006). Stolen Smiles: A Summary Report on the Physical and Psychological Health Consequences of Women and Adolescents Trafficked in Europe. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Zoloth, L., & Rubin, S. (1994). Ethics and Prostitution: A Conversation with Philosophers and Activists. Hypatia, 9(2), 23-38.
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
Submissions